Encoding: Changing Perception into Memory
The process of transforming information into a lasting memory. There are several different ways that this information can be encoded.
Levels of Encoding
All forms of memory start with encoding. The ways that our brains encode information is all dependent on the type of information that it's being given. Semantic encoding is when meaning is applied to whatever it is that someone may be trying to remember. It's a way of combining old information with new information coming in and the brain trying to make sense of it all. Simply put, semantic memory is where general knowledge of the world is stored. Visual imagery encoding is when new data that the brain processes is turned into a mental picture of the event. Visual encoding is similar to semantic in that the new information coming in gets related to current knowledge already in the brain. It gives you a verbal cue as well as a visual one. Acoustic encoding is the storage of new information through hearing said data. An important aspect of acoustic encoding is the amount of attention given to the auditory stimuli. Organizational encoding is the process of taking seemingly random material and putting this information into categories in order for better recall. So which form is best?
Levels of Processing Theory
In 1975, Craik & Tulvik tested the theory that there are different levels of processing which lead to better or worse memory recall, depending on how the subject was asked to memorize the information. The experiment consisted of telling participants to remember a series of words and each of the three subcategories were told to memorize the words in a different manner. "Shallow" perceptual analysis focused on the superficial aspect of the information given. The participants in this portion of the experiment were told to remember what the word looked like, as in which letters were upper or lower case. The "intermediate" level of the experiment focused on how the word sounded and rhyming components. The "deep" perceptual analysis concentrated on semantic encoding and placing meaning to the words that the participants were being asked to memorize. When the participants were asked to recall each group of words from each level of processing, the amount they were able to recognize varied greatly. In the shallow group, there was only 16% recollection, intermediate was 57%, and deep had the greatest percentage of recollection at 78%. Based on this information, it would seem that semantic information is the best way to remember information gained. But, just as all humans are unique, so is their best process of encoding.
Importance of Attention in Encoding
Some people like to claim that they are great at multitasking, but is that really the case when it comes to memory and learning? In another experiment by Craik in 1996, participants were put into two different groups. One group had no distractions while the other group had a small distraction (they had to monitor the location of an asterisk on a screen and push certain keys when it moved). 15 words were recited to each group and they had to remember the words as best they could based only upon hearing the word. the non-distracted group performed significantly better, recalling on average 9 out of the 15 words while the distracted group on average could only recall 5 of the 15. Imaging taken of a multitasking brain versus a full attention brain shows that the brain performs differently when the level of secondary stimuli is "easier" or "harder". The frontal lobe was shown to be more active with an "easier" secondary task than with a "harder" secondary task.
Emotion and the Ability to Encode
In 2013, researchers from BYU wanted to study the effect depression has on the brain's ability to use pattern separation in order to encode a memory. In the experiment, participants with varying levels of depression were asked to categorize objects shown on a screen as old (something they have seen before), similar (they had seen something like it in the past), or new (they had not ever seen that object before). The participants with depression were fully able to distinguish the old and new objects correctly, but inappropriately categorized the similar objects as old. Researchers said"We found a negative relationship between depression scores and pattern separation scores. These results provide support for the idea that depression is negatively related to pattern separation performance." While this may not seem like it's something that would make a big impact on ones memory, it can negatively affect day to day life as in recalling where a car is parked or who one spoke with about personal information. This information indicates the in people with depression, the hippocampus is depressed, which decreases the growth of new brain cells.
Works Cited
McLeod, S. A. (2007). Stages of Memory - Encoding Storage and Retrieval. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/memory.html
Whiteman, H. (2013). Depression affects memory by "impairing ability to differentiate similarities'. Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/267039.php
Encoding and Retrieval from Long-Term Memory. Retrieved from http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~ashas/Cognition%20Textbook/chapter5.pdf
Levels of Processing Theory
In 1975, Craik & Tulvik tested the theory that there are different levels of processing which lead to better or worse memory recall, depending on how the subject was asked to memorize the information. The experiment consisted of telling participants to remember a series of words and each of the three subcategories were told to memorize the words in a different manner. "Shallow" perceptual analysis focused on the superficial aspect of the information given. The participants in this portion of the experiment were told to remember what the word looked like, as in which letters were upper or lower case. The "intermediate" level of the experiment focused on how the word sounded and rhyming components. The "deep" perceptual analysis concentrated on semantic encoding and placing meaning to the words that the participants were being asked to memorize. When the participants were asked to recall each group of words from each level of processing, the amount they were able to recognize varied greatly. In the shallow group, there was only 16% recollection, intermediate was 57%, and deep had the greatest percentage of recollection at 78%. Based on this information, it would seem that semantic information is the best way to remember information gained. But, just as all humans are unique, so is their best process of encoding.
Importance of Attention in Encoding
Some people like to claim that they are great at multitasking, but is that really the case when it comes to memory and learning? In another experiment by Craik in 1996, participants were put into two different groups. One group had no distractions while the other group had a small distraction (they had to monitor the location of an asterisk on a screen and push certain keys when it moved). 15 words were recited to each group and they had to remember the words as best they could based only upon hearing the word. the non-distracted group performed significantly better, recalling on average 9 out of the 15 words while the distracted group on average could only recall 5 of the 15. Imaging taken of a multitasking brain versus a full attention brain shows that the brain performs differently when the level of secondary stimuli is "easier" or "harder". The frontal lobe was shown to be more active with an "easier" secondary task than with a "harder" secondary task.
Emotion and the Ability to Encode
In 2013, researchers from BYU wanted to study the effect depression has on the brain's ability to use pattern separation in order to encode a memory. In the experiment, participants with varying levels of depression were asked to categorize objects shown on a screen as old (something they have seen before), similar (they had seen something like it in the past), or new (they had not ever seen that object before). The participants with depression were fully able to distinguish the old and new objects correctly, but inappropriately categorized the similar objects as old. Researchers said"We found a negative relationship between depression scores and pattern separation scores. These results provide support for the idea that depression is negatively related to pattern separation performance." While this may not seem like it's something that would make a big impact on ones memory, it can negatively affect day to day life as in recalling where a car is parked or who one spoke with about personal information. This information indicates the in people with depression, the hippocampus is depressed, which decreases the growth of new brain cells.
Works Cited
McLeod, S. A. (2007). Stages of Memory - Encoding Storage and Retrieval. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/memory.html
Whiteman, H. (2013). Depression affects memory by "impairing ability to differentiate similarities'. Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/267039.php
Encoding and Retrieval from Long-Term Memory. Retrieved from http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~ashas/Cognition%20Textbook/chapter5.pdf
